On Dietary Supplements

Herbal dietary supplements are traditionally used to alleviate or prevent certain medical conditions, including digestive problems and depression, or to improve an individual’s quality of life. While these supplements and other medicinal herbs fall under the jurisdiction of the Federal Drug Administration (FDA), the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 gives responsibility for testing and ensuring safety of products to the manufacturer. Recent reports indicate that some supplements may contain potentially harmful substances in addition to their active ingredients, but consumers are often not aware of these ingredients or of the way that supplements or vitamins may interact with other medications.

The FDA defines “dietary supplements” as products taken by mouth which contain vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals, amino acids, and/or other substances such as enzymes or metabolites. A national survey found that 52 percent of American adults had used supplements within the last 30 days, and the popularity of supplements in the United States continues to increase. Among the most commonly reported products were multivitamins (35 percent), vitamins E and C (12-13 percent), calcium (10 percent), and B-complex vitamins (5 percent). Though research has shown that some dietary supplements, including folic acid and calcium, are effective in preventing or treating diseases, in the case of other supplements, additional research is needed to prove the efficacy of their use.

While some supplements have not yet been proven safe and effective, others have been linked to serious adverse events by clinical research or case reports. Consumer Reports has documented twelve supplements including colloidal silver, comfrey, and kava, which have been linked to serious health problems such as permanently turning the skin a bluish color and damage to the liver and other organs. A recent study of 40 herbal dietary supplements by the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found trace amounts of at least one potentially hazardous contaminant in 37 of the products tested. Wide variation has also been seen in the amount of active compounds in supplements, and some, including St. John’s wort, have been found to negatively affect the efficacy of prescription medications.

Because of the potential for interactions with prescription medications, it is important that consumers consult their physician before taking any supplements. Consumers should also be aware that some claims made by manufacturers about the benefits of particular supplements may not have been verified. Though FDA regulations do not permit manufacturers or retailers to make claims that their products can treat, prevent, or cure specific conditions, these regulations are not always adhered to. Some individuals’ health may benefit from the use of certain supplements, but experts advise consumers to be aware of the potential risks of taking supplements and ask their doctor if there is the potential for any type of drug interaction.

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On Diabetes Worldwide

Diabetes mellitus affects more than 220 million globally, and is among the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. While nearly eight percent of the population of the United States is affected by diabetes - a figure which is expected to rise to 50 percent by 2020 - reports show that almost 80 percent of deaths due to the condition occur in developing nations. Experts indicate that in recent years more people with diabetes, particularly those in the developed world, are aware of their condition, but it is important to ensure that information is made available regarding not only how to manage the condition, but how to prevent it.

A chronic disease stemming from the body’s ineffective production or handling of insulin, diabetes may affect people at different stages of life, particularly childhood, adulthood, or pregnancy. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas and secreted into the bloodstream to lower the amount of sugar in the blood. Excess sugar in the blood can lead to serious health problems, and individuals with diabetes must control their condition, often through monitoring their blood sugar levels and the administration of insulin either through frequent injections or an insulin pump. Type 1 diabetes; also known as insulin-dependent, juvenile, or childhood-onset diabetes; is characterized by deficient production of insulin. Though individuals with Type 2 diabetes, also known as non-insulin-dependent or adult-onset diabetes, often experience the same symptoms as those with Type 1 diabetes including excessive excretion of urine, thirst, vision changes, and fatigue, Type 2 diabetes results from the body’s ineffective use of the insulin it produces. Women may also experience gestational diabetes, which occurs in pregnant women as the placenta produces hormones to sustain the pregnancy which make the body’s cells more resistant to insulin. Reports indicate that in 90 percent of women affected by gestational diabetes, the condition resolves after delivery.

While Gestational diabetes occurs only in pregnant women, and Type 1 diabetes occurs primarily in individuals with a family history of the condition, anyone can develop Type 2 diabetes. Though some factors that contribute to Type 2 diabetes such as age and race cannot be controlled, others, including inactivity, weight, and body-fat distribution can be. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 90 percent of individuals with diabetes have Type 2 diabetes, and a majority of these cases are the result of excess body weight and a lack of physical activity. Because these factors can also exacerbate the condition of individuals who have diabetes, experts recommend that precautions be taken, including maintaining a healthy diet, exercising, and carefully monitoring blood sugar and insulin levels.

Individuals with diabetes who allow their blood sugar and insulin levels to fluctuate too widely may experience disabling and potentially life-threatening complications. The risk of developing cardiovascular disease, nerve damage, and kidney damage are all greatly increased in individuals with diabetes, as are the potential for damage to the blood vessels of the eyes, nerve damage in the feet, and skin and bone problems. Reports indicate that diabetes increases the chance of foot ulcers and eventual amputation, is among the leading causes of kidney failure, and is responsible for nearly five percent of the 37 million cases of blindness worldwide.

In addition to these potentially disabling complications, if left unchecked, diabetes can lead to death. WHO projections indicate that by 2030, deaths due to diabetes and its complications may reach 2.2 million per year with the most rapid growth occurring in developing nations. Though treatment options are somewhat limited - with frequent blood sugar testing, diet, and an exercise regimen that includes weight training and aerobic activity being most effective - by understanding diabetes it may be possible to better control it and minimize the number of new cases.

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Maternal Mortality Worldwide

Worldwide, a reported 1,500 women die each day as a result of pregnancy-related causes. According to the World Health Organization’s (WHO) “Trends in Maternal Mortality” report, maternal mortality rates (MMR) worldwide have decreased, but remain a persistent public health concern. As noted in previous WHO reports on women’s health, medical staff and services, educational programs, and information pertaining to pregnancy and childbirth may be lacking in some areas. By ensuring that trained medical personnel are available, and that women are able to access pre- and postnatal care, MMR can be further reduced.

The number of women dying due to complications during pregnancy has decreased from 546,000 in 1990 to 358,000 in 2008 with an estimated 99 percent of these deaths occurring in developing nations. Reports indicate that women in developing nations are 36 times more likely to die from a pregnancy-related cause than those in developed countries. Though rates vary within and between countries due to differences in income and between urban and rural populations, the average risk of maternal mortality in developing nations is one in 75, compared with one in 7,300 in developed areas. According to experts, most maternal deaths are avoidable, and are due to four major causes: severe bleeding after childbirth, infections, hypertensive disorders, and unsafe abortions. In addition, approximately 20 percent of maternal deaths are due to indirect causes, including diseases that complicate pregnancy or are aggravated by it such as malaria, anemia, and HIV/AIDS.

Many of these deaths are due, at least in part, to a lack of trained medical personnel available to care for pregnant women and new mothers. WHO data show that less than two-thirds of women in developing countries receive assistance from a healthcare worker during childbirth. In addition to care during delivery, antenatal care is often limited in developing regions. In low- and middle-income countries approximately two-thirds of women have at least one antenatal visit, while in high-income nations nearly all women have at least four antenatal visits, receive postnatal care, and are attended by a midwife or doctor during childbirth. According to the WHO’s Colin Mathers, reducing the MMR worldwide will require countries, international organizations, and charities to collaborate to educate and train additional medical personnel to attend to pregnant women. Dr. Margaret Chan, Director-General of the WHO, has also stated that “No woman should die due to inadequate access to family planning and to pregnancy and delivery care.”

In addition to ensuring that trained personnel are available locally, telemedicine initiatives such as the iConsult program may prove beneficial in lowering the MMR. By combining a software application and website, iConsult may enables healthcare providers in remote and medically underserved areas (Requestors) to receive free advice on difficult cases from medical specialists (Volunteers) including Obstetricians and other maternal and fetal health experts. This type of telemedicine program may be employed to improve health outcomes and lower maternal mortality rates in regions where the necessary personnel are not available.

Learn more about how you can participate in iConsult, the flagship program of iCons in Medicine

On Cholera Worldwide

Though the last major outbreak in the United States occurred in 1911, cholera remains a persistent health concern in many parts of the world, including Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa. Recent outbreaks have been seen in Nigeria, where cholera has killed more than 1,500 people this year, and in Haiti, where survivors of the massive January earthquake have been affected by an outbreak that has infected an estimated 2,300 people and killed at least 200. Due to cholera, there are an estimated three to five million new cases reported worldwide and between 100,000 and 120,000 deaths each year. Like other diarrheal illnesses, cholera is easily treatable and can be prevented through the provision of safe water, improved sanitation services, and education about the importance of hygiene.



Cholera is an acute diarrheal infection caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Though three-quarters of individuals infected with V. cholerae do not exhibit any symptoms, they may shed the bacteria in their stool for seven to 14 days, potentially infecting others. While V. cholerae is the direct source of cholera infection, the deadly effects of the disease are caused by a toxin called CTX, that the bacteria produce in the small intestine of the host. CTX binds to the intestinal walls and interferes with the normal flow of sodium and chloride, causing the body to secrete large amounts of water and leading to diarrhea accompanied by dehydration. In individuals exhibiting the severe form of the disease, the rapid loss of fluids can lead to dehydration and shock, and without treatment death can occur within hours. Approximately one in 20 individuals infected with the bacteria develops symptoms associated with cholera, which include: severe, watery diarrhea; nausea and vomiting; muscle cramps; dehydration; and shock.

The rapid loss of fluids in a short period of time – often as much as a quart in an hour - associated with diarrhea due to cholera, makes the disease particularly deadly. In order to replenish the fluids and electrolytes that an individual with severe cholera has lost, Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) must be administered. If a pre-formulated solution is not available, experts suggest combining one-half teaspoon salt, one-half teaspoon baking soda, and three tablespoons sugar in one liter of safe drinking water. With the prompt delivery of ORS, up to 80 percent of people can be treated successfully, with a fatality rate below one percent. Antibiotics may be used in conjunction with ORS to shorten the course and lessen the severity of the illness, however their delivery is less critical to cholera patients than rehydration. To help control the spread of the disease, two types of oral cholera vaccines are also available, but according to experts they provide only a short-term effect and should be administered in areas where ongoing water and sanitation improvement programs are in place.

Despite the simplicity of the cure, thousands of people die each year in regions that lack effective sanitation and water purification systems. Following man-made or natural disasters, the risk of an initial outbreak of cholera growing into an epidemic is greatly increased. As seen recently following floods in Pakistan and Nigeria, the spread of cholera becomes a major public health concern when there is a lack of clean water. By providing treatment as well as information about the importance of boiling water before drinking and maintaining personal hygiene, it may be possible to slow or even stop the spread of cholera and other communicable diseases.

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On Food Allergies and Intolerances

Individuals may experience allergies to any number of substances, but reports indicate that a growing number of Americans suffer from allergies to particular foods. Food allergies affect approximately 12 million Americans, including three million children. ”Food intolerances,” though frequently discussed in conjunction with food allergies, are quite different. Individuals with “intolerance” to certain foods may experience adverse reactions and discomfort if they are consumed. It is important to have an understanding not only of the severity and potential risk of food allergies, but of the difference between true allergies and intolerances.

The majority of adverse reactions linked to particular foods are due food intolerances. Individuals can be intolerant to lactose, gluten, or other foods, and may experience nausea, vomiting, stomach cramping, and diarrhea. While these symptoms are surely unpleasant, they are markedly different from the immune response seen in individuals with food allergies. In addition to bowel discomfort, food allergies can cause an anaphylactic response, leading to tingling and swelling of the mouth and face, hives, trouble breathing, dizziness, or fainting. These symptoms are caused by an response in which the body’s immune system mistakenly identifies a particular food as a harmful substance. An allergic reaction involves two components of the immune system: an antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE), and a mast cell. When an individual consumes - or in some cases is in close contact with - a food to which they have an allergy, the allergen stimulates specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes which produce the IgE antibody for that specific allergen. This IgE is then released and attaches to the surface of the mast cells in the tissues of the body, prompting the cells to release histamine.

Allergic reactions can range in severity, but reports indicate that they cause 30,000 cases of anaphylaxis, 2,000 hospitalizations, and 150 deaths each year in the United States. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there are eight foods which account for 90 percent for all food-allergy reactions: cow’s milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts (walnuts, pecans, etc.), fish, shellfish, soybeans, and wheat. One of the most common food allergies in the United States is to peanuts, affecting an estimated 3.3 million Americans. The incidence of peanut allergies is increasing, and reports indicate that between 1997 and 2008, the rate of child peanut allergies has tripled. Rates of other food allergies have also increased in recent years, and according to the CDC, the number of children with food allergies increased by 18 percent, between 1997 and 2007. While the cause of the increase is not fully understood, it may be due in part to the risk factors associated with food allergies, which include a family history of asthma and allergies, and elevated IgE levels.

Though there is no proven treatment for food allergies other than the avoidance of the allergen, experts recommend that individuals with food allergies carry injectable epinephrine at all times, as it can help to mitigate severity of the allergic response. In addition to the physical health-related issues resulting from food allergies, reports indicate that more than 30 percent of children with food allergies have experienced teasing or bullying related to their allergy. By gaining an understanding of food allergies and sharing information about them with others, it may be possible ensure that individuals are better informed about how to help prevent allergic reactions, and lessen the stigma faced by children with food allergies.

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On Alzheimer's Disease

Dementia is not a specific disease, but rather a group of symptoms affecting intellectual and social functioning. The most common form is a progressive form of presenile dementia first identified in 1906 by Dr. Alois Alzheimer, known as Alzheimer’s disease. Experts indicate that the number of individuals with Alzheimer’s worldwide could increase from 35.6 million to 65.7 million by 2030, due in part to the growth in aging populations. Additional reports indicate that in the U.S. alone there are currently 5.3 million people living with the disease, and this figure is projected to increase to 16 million by 2050. While there is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease, through treatment and education, it may be possible to improve outcomes for those with the condition.

Accounting for 50 to 80 percent of dementia cases, Alzheimer’s disease is marked by the loss of intellectual and social abilities severe enough to interfere with an individual’s daily functioning. As it progresses, Alzheimer’s disease may lead to mood swings, distrust of others, social withdrawal, and depression. Though it is not a “normal” part of the aging process, the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease increases with age. Approximately five percent of people between the ages of 65 and 74, and nearly half of those over the age of 85 have Alzheimer’s disease. Although there is no known direct cause for the disease or means to ensure its prevention, research suggests that there may be a genetic link to the development of Alzheimer’s, and that lifestyle choices like maintaining a healthy weight and exercising one’s body and mind can at least delay the onset of the condition.

Alzheimer’s disease is most often diagnosed using a combination of blood or spinal fluid tests to rule out other possible causes of dementia, and brain scans to locate any visible abnormalities. Though doctors can accurately diagnose 90 percent of Alzheimer’s patients, the condition can only be diagnosed with complete accuracy during an autopsy. A post-mortem microscopic examination of the tissues of the brain of individuals with Alzheimer’s, reveals two abnormal structures called “Plaques” and “Tangles,” which are damaging to nerve cells. Plaques contain deposits of a protein fragment called beta-amyloid and build up between nerve cells, while twisted fibers of tau protein known as Tangles form inside dying cells. Though researchers do not yet have a full understanding of the role that Plaques and Tangles play in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease, experts believe that they block the communication among nerve cells and disrupt cell activities. Recent research has shown that Tangles may offer some insight into how quickly Alzheimer’s disease will progress in an individual, leading to the development of potentially tau-lowering drug treatments.

New research suggests that large doses of vitamin B may halve the rate of brain shrinkage in individuals with mild cognitive impairment. Though the mechanism by which B vitamins slow the progression of Alzheimer’s has not been identified, some B vitamins have been shown to control levels of homocystieine, an amino acid associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer’s. These new treatments, as well as the medications commonly used to help improve some of the symptoms of Alzheimer’s, which include cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine can help to improve the lives of individuals with Alzheimer’s. On average, these live half as long as a peer who does not have the disease – meaning that a 75-year-old diagnosed with Alzheimer’s can expect to live another six years, while a 75-year-old without the condition may live 12 years. However, because of the variance in the severity of cases and the speed with which symptoms progress, the life-expectancy of individuals with Alzheimer’s varies greatly.

Further research related to testing, diagnostic, and treatment procedures may lead to improved outcomes for individuals with Alzheimer’s. By gaining a better understanding of this condition and its causes, it may be possible to slow or halt its progression and improve the lives of millions of elderly individuals worldwide.

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On Breast Cancer Worldwide

This October marks the 25^th annual celebration of Breast Cancer Awareness Month, during which organizations in the U.S. and worldwide will hold events aimed at raising awareness and providing education about breast cancer. In spite of ongoing efforts to inform the public about breast cancer, it continues to be a major health concern worldwide. According to the National Cancer Institute (NCI), in 2010, there will be 209,060 new cases of breast cancer in the United States. Reports from the World Health Organization (WHO) indicate that incidence rates vary worldwide, however as the adoption of “western lifestyles” increase in the developing world, breast cancer has become more common. Due to the lack of adequate diagnosis and treatment facilities in these regions, survival rates are often also significantly lower. In 2004 an estimated 519,000 women died worldwide due to breast cancer, with 69 percent of these deaths occurring in developing nations. By ensuring that information about breast cancer and early detection programs are available, treatment outcomes worldwide can be greatly improved.

Like other types of cancer, breast cancer develops when abnormal cells divide in an uncontrolled fashion and spread to surrounding tissue (metastasize). Breast cancer is a malignant form of tumor growth which can develop in both men and women, but is approximately 100 times less common in men. An estimated one in every eight women will be diagnosed with breast cancer during their lifetime, making it the second most commonly diagnosed cancer after skin cancer in women in the United States. There are many types of breast cancer, but two of the most common are ductal carcinoma, which begins in the cells that line the milk ducts of the breast; and lobular carcinoma, which begins in the lobes or lobules of the breast. Unlike less common forms of breast cancer, including inflammatory breast cancer which is marked by heat, redness, and swelling of the breast, these common types of breast cancer tend to manifest similarly.

The first signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast or thickening of breast tissue, change in shape of the breast, changes in the breast or nipple skin, or bloody discharge from the nipple. Tumors in the breasts may be detected during clinical breast exams, mammograms and other imaging tests, or self breast exams. A mammogram is a black-and-white image of the breast similar to an X-ray. Though some recommendations differ, the American Cancer Society suggests that women undergo yearly mammograms beginning at age 40. Though mammography has proven to be an effective screening method and can help ensure early diagnosis of breast cancer, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates that more than 7 million women in the United States have not had a recent mammogram.

Following the identification of a tumor within the breast, a determination must be made regarding how advanced the spread of the cancer is so that it can be effectively treated. The “Stages” into which breast cancer are categorized – from Stage 0, defined by abnormal cells that are not invasive cancer, to Stage IV, defined by cancer which has spread throughout the tissues of the body. The Stages indicate how aggressively the cancer is spreading within the breast, to the surrounding tissue and lymph nodes, and throughout the rest of the body. Depending on the progression of the cancer, treatment options may include chemotherapy and surgery. Chemotherapy is a drug treatment that uses powerful chemicals to slow the growth of cancer in the body or kill off the cancer cells. Though it is effective, chemotherapy, which can produce a number of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and fatigue, is often used in combination with surgical interventions. Breast-sparing surgeries, which aim to remove cancer from the breast while preserving the surrounding tissue; and mastectomies, in which the entire breast is removed, are often employed.

Though breast cancer treatment can be physically and emotionally painful, there are currently over 2.5 million breast cancer survivors in the U.S. and many more around the world. Breast cancer can occur at any age, but the risk of its development increases as an individual gets older. While the cause is still unknown, there are a number of factors linked to an increased risk of developing breast cancer including the presence of certain “breast cancer genes,” a woman’s age, family history, and age at the onset of menstruation and menopause can increase their risk of developing breast cancer. While little can be done about some of these factors, some women with a genetic predisposition to developing cancer have opted to undergo preventative mastectomies to reduce their risk. Individuals can also help to reduce their risk by maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

By ensuring that individuals are made aware of the importance of regular clinical and self breast evaluations and that early detection and diagnosis programs are made available, treatment outcomes can be greatly improved.

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Flooding in Pakistan

Reports indicate that recent flooding in Pakistan has affected the lives of at least 15.4 million people and left a third of the nation – including approximately 7.9 million acres of cultivated land900,000 homes have been destroyed by surges of water, and a reported six million people do not have access to food, shelter, and potable water. In addition, the United Nations indicates that 1,600 have died and more lives are at risk as the threat of water-borne illness continues to rise.

Floods began in late July following a period of particularly heavy monsoon rains and have continued through August. Many have sought shelter in camps established by aid organizations, but public health experts warn that the crowding associated with displaced persons camps could exacerbate the spread of disease. Scabies, a skin infection caused by mites that burrow and cause pimple-like irritation, is becoming increasingly common in the camps. According to some reports, tens of thousands of infected individuals are among the 600,000 people in relief camps set up in Sindh province. In these tented camps which have been established in army compounds, schools, and public buildings, healthcare providers are struggling to contain outbreaks of acute diarrhea, the precursor to fatal cholera.

According to Mark Ward, acting director of the U.S. Agency for International Development’s office for foreign disaster assistance, “When you are dealing with this much water and that many people it [cholera] is almost unavoidable.” In addition, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reported 204,000 cases of acute diarrhea, 263,300 cases of skin diseases, and 204,600 cases of acute respiratory diseases in flood-affected regions. Thousands of cases of suspected malaria have also been documented and the conditions for mosquito-borne as well as water-borne illness are present.

The delivery of treatment for these fast-spreading communicable diseases has been compounded by the lack of adequate clinical facilities. Reports indicate that 200 health facilities were damaged or destroyed. Vaccination programs have been established in Charsadda and Peshawar regions and more than 100,000 children have received polio shots. Despite these efforts, millions, including 3.5 million children are at risk of contracting disease, and require water, shelter, or emergency care. Radio and text messaging campaigns have also been put in place to distribute information about the importance of hand washing and good hygiene.

While funding for humanitarian aid has been limited to date, the UN and other international organizations continue their efforts to garner support. Assuring that food, water, shelter, and medical treatment are available for those who need them is the primary concern of aid organizations currently working in Pakistan. By delivering effective medical treatment in a timely fashion while also working to prevent the spread of diseases, outbreaks can be contained.

Find out how you can contribute to iCons in Medicine’s efforts to provide assistance to healthcare providers in Pakistan

Learn more about how you can participate in iCons in Medicine’s ongoing efforts to support rehabilitation relief in Haiti - under water. At least

West Nile

West Nile virus (WNV) is an infection transmitted to humans and animals by mosquitoes which have fed on infected birds. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), between 1999 and 2008, 28,961 confirmed and probable cases of WNV were reported. Though 80 percent of individuals infected with WNV show no symptoms, approximately one in 150 develop severe illness with symptoms including high fever, vision loss, and paralysis. Though there is no vaccine or cure for WNV, it is important for individuals to have an understanding of how best to protect themselves from infection.

First identified in Uganda in 1937, WNV occurs when Culex pipiens mosquitoes feed on infected birds, which serve as vectors for the virus, and then pass the virus on to humans. WNV cannot be passed from one individual to another through close personal contact, and the primary method of transmission is through the bite of an infected mosquito. Mild infections (West Nile fever) are seen in approximately 20 percent of individuals, and are marked by symptoms including fever, headache, and body aches. Individuals with severe infections (severe West Nile disease) may experience inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) or of the brain and surrounding membranes (meningoencephalitis), and three to 15 percent of WNV infections result in death. According to CDC statistics, in 2009 there were a total of 663 cases of WNV in the United States, and 30 of these resulted in death.

The CDC indicates that WNV is an established seasonal epidemic in North America, beginning in the summer and continuing into the fall. In addition to documented cases in the United States, both sporadic cases and major outbreaks of encephalitis related to WNV have been reported in Africa, West Asia, Australia, Europe, and the Middle East. Recent reports have documented outbreaks in Greece and British Columbia, Canada; as well as in New York, Pennsylvania, and northwestern Indiana.

Like malaria, dengue, and other mosquito-borne illness, rates of WNV infection increase during periods of warm weather when mosquito populations are most active. Torrential rains in early summer and persistent high humidity in many regions of the United States have created the ideal breeding climate for mosquitoes. Experts recommend taking preventative measures to avoid infection including the “5 D’s”:

• Dusk and Dawn – avoid being outdoors during these periods which are when mosquitoes are most active
• Dress – wear clothing that limits exposed skin
• DEET – use repellents containing DEET (picaridin and oil of lemon eucalyptus are other repellant options)
• Drainage – eliminate areas of standing water in which mosquitoes lay eggs.
  

In addition, dead birds, particularly crows, which display signs of illness should be reported to authorities for proper disposal. As health officials continue to track outbreaks of WNV, individuals can take appropriate measures to limit their risk of infection and keep their community healthy.

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Web-Accessibility for People with Disabilities

Though substantial progress has been made to ensure that all individuals with disabilities are afforded the same opportunities as those without, some barriers still remain. While millions of individuals with disabilities currently utilize the Internet to some degree, gaining access to and fully experiencing materials presented on the Internet can be problematic for individuals with certain types of disabilities. Those with motor impairments, low vision or blindness, low hearing or deafness, and/or language or cognitive disabilities often require assistive technologies or devices to access websites. A report from the Disability Statistics Center of the Institute for Health and Aging indicates that at least 2.1 million of the reported 54.4 million Americans with disabilities use the Internet from their homes or on another computer. The American Federation for the Blind states that around 1.5 million of the 7.8 million Americans who experience vision loss use computers, with just under one million reporting regular computer use. Additionally, an estimated 7.8 million people over the age of 15 experience some form of hearing loss, and a report in the American Annals of the Deaf indicates that 63 percent of those who took part in a recent study reported regular computer use. New legislative measures may help to make the web more accessible to any individual with a disability.

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) states “not all…disabilities affect access to the Web, but problems with vision, hearing, dexterity and short-term memory can have a significant impact on a person's ability to use online information and services.” Individuals with disabilities frequently employ assistive technologies or make other accommodations to access information online. These may include screen readers, software utilized by individuals with visual impairments which converts information on screen into speech; alternative text (ALT text), HTML tags which provide descriptions of images for blind individuals; and closed captioning, the display of text coinciding with audio content for individuals with low hearing or deafness.

The majority of websites are still primarily inaccessible to individuals with disabilities, and the efforts by others to ensure that they are accessible to people with disabilities have been minimal. A number of “mainstream” websites have instituted accessibility features, including Facebook and YouTube, which have begun implementing changes that will improve the browsing experience of individuals with disabilities. These adaptations include the following:

• Facebook provides an audio captcha alternative to for those using screen readers, as well as an HTML-only version of the website and instructions for increasing font size in a number of web browsers.

• YouTube provides closed captioning options for users with low-hearing or who may not be able to hear or understand the audio portions of videos. However, captions must be added to the video by the individual who uploads it

• Twitter has not yet addressed the issues that prevent its use by many individuals with disabilities. However, AccessibleTwitter offers “a simple, consistent layout and navigation,” “assures that all links are keyboard accessible,” and “uses large default text size and high color contrast.” In addition, the recently introduced service TweetCall allows users to speak their tweets, which are then transcribed to text. For individuals who may have difficulty typing or using a computer, this creates an opportunity for the utilization of Twitter.

To further improve the accessibility of the Internet, Congress recently approved legislation that would set federal standards for the telecommunications industry , including online delivery of information. These new regulations coincide with the 20th anniversary of the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA), a landmark legislation that helped to ensure equal opportunities and accessibility. Though the ADA has led to vast improvements in many areas, as Representative Edward Markey, D-Mass, noted “The ADA mandated physical ramps into buildings, today, individuals with disabilities need online ramps to the Internet so that they can get to the Web from wherever they happen to be.”

You can evaluate the level of accessibility of a website using the online tool WAVE.

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Using Social Media for Organ Transplantation

Reports indicate that the number of organ donors in the U.S. has decreased in recent years, while the number of patients in need of an organ transplant continues to grow. In 2006, there were 8,019 cadaveric organ donors and 6,732 living donors. Both figures have since decreased, and in 2008 there were only 7,990 cadaveric donors and 6,218 living donors. According to the National Kidney Foundation, 104,748 individuals in the United States are currently awaiting an organ transplant of some type, and more than 4,000 new patients are added to this figure each month. Organs from donors are matched to waiting recipients by a national computer registry called the National Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (OPTN). In addition, close relatives and family members often undergo testing including tissue matching and blood typing to determine if they are a viable candidate for donation. Many organs, including kidneys, can be transplanted from either living or recently deceased donors, provided they have good kidney function, and low risk for certain disorders including high blood pressure and diabetes.

Transplants using kidneys from both living and cadaver donors are frequently successful, with about 94.9 percent and 97.96 percent of cadaver and living (respectively) donor kidneys still functioning after one year. In spite of the success rate, the wait to receive a transplant, which can often be several years and often requires dialysis and other physically taxing treatments, is too long for some individuals, and a number have chosen to utilize online social media to seek out possible donors. The Baltimore Sun reports that 80,000 people in the United States are currently awaiting kidney transplants, but just over 16,000 were completed last year. For individuals seeking to increase their chances of finding a donor, Annette Whinery, the coordinator of University Medical Center’s living donor program, says that it is becoming common for patients to seek out living donors on their own, often through church, work, family, and friends. Dr. Ngoc L. Thai, director of Allegheny General Hospital’s Center for Abdominal Transplantation, recently completed a transplant surgery in which the donor and recipient connected via Facebook. “It’s the way of the future,” according to Dr. Thai, who says that he expects more patients to turn to social networking websites for help finding donor matches. In addition to Facebook, some patients and their family members have turned to Craigslist and other websites to find possible donors.

Some individuals awaiting transplant and those who have recently received a transplant choose to use social networking websites to tell their story, rather than to ask others to consider donating an organ. Through blogs, Facebook, and Twitter, individuals in need of kidneys and other organs are able to keep others informed. Recent research has shown that people fighting chronic illnesses and those with serious health problems, such as those that might require an organ transplant, are using social media to find information and connect with others with similar ailments. Social networks like the Transplant Trust and Patients Like Me allow patients awaiting transplants, their families, physicians, donors, and others to connect with one another. In a recent study by Teri Browne, PhD, from the University of South Carolina in Columbia, this type of connection was shown to help patients navigate and understand the process of getting a transplant more easily.

According to Dave Bosch, spokesman for the Gift of Hope, an organ and tissue donor network, “Social media has become the way people communicate, very personally, about what’s going on in their life.” Dr. Kenneth Prager, director of clinical ethics and chairman of the Medical Ethics Committee at New York Presbyterian Hospital, notes that Internet appeals for organ donations raise a number of questions of fairness. While Dr. Prager states that “Solicitations undermine the concept of a level playing field,” which is the primary objective of the OPTN, “there is nothing illegal in advertising or using the Web for personal or health reasons. Altruistic organ donors have the legal right to designate recipients.” It is important to note, however, that the sale of kidneys and other organs is illegal, and all donations must be made without compensation.

Though the use social media to address matters related to an individual’s health may seem somewhat unusual, it is a trend that seems to be gaining in popularity. Some experts even argue that the solicitation for kidney and other organ donation on websites like matchingdonors.com, Craigslist, and Facebook may help to encourage individuals to consider donation and benefit the population of individuals in need of organs as a whole.

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On Sunscreen and Skin Cancer

In 1903, Dr. Auguste Rollier opened the world’s first sun clinic at Leysin offering a place where sunlight was seen as a treatment for disease. Well into the 20^th century, tanned skin was not only an indicator of health, but was fashionable as well. In recent years, outdoor tanning as well as the use of tanning beds have drawn attention for their potentially harmful effects. Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States with nearly one million cases diagnosed each year. Though other risk factors can contribute to the development of skin cancer, one’s exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation can speed their progression. By making sure to apply sunscreen, wear protective clothing, and limit time spent in direct sun, individuals can decrease their likelihood of developing skin cancer.

UV rays are a type of invisible radiation that comes from the sun, tanning beds, and sunlamps. There are three kinds of UV light: UVA rays are present year round and penetrate deep into the surface of the skin, damaging the cells beneath and causing signs of aging. Though UVA radiation can contribute to skin cancer, UVB rays, which cause sunburn and tanning of the skin and are more prevalent during the summer months, are also most often responsible for the development of skin cancer. UVC rays, are blocked by the ozone layer, but would cause sunburn with only brief exposure, while prolonged exposure would be fatal. Tanning beds primarily emit UVA radiation, which is the least harmful, but a 2006 study indicated that the use of tanning beds before an individual is 30 years old is associated with a 75 percent increase in melanoma risk.

Excessive UV exposure frequently leads to erythema, or sunburn, as well as causing a darkening and thickening of the outermost layers of the skin, which differs from a sun tan. Chronic exposure to any UV radiation can cause degeneration of the cells, fibrous tissue, and blood vessels of the skin, and may eventually contribute to the development some types of skin cancer. The primary symptom of skin cancer is a mole or other growth on the skin. The “ABCD system” is frequently used to help individuals understand what to look for when determining if a skin growth is cancerous. Asymmetry, when one half of the area is different from the other; Borders, irregular edges to the growth; Color, changes in color from one area to another; and Diameter, when the growth is larger than a pencil eraser; are all indicators that a lesion should be examined by a dermatologist. Some experts also make note of the “E factor” associated with skin cancer development – the Evolution or changing of the lesion.

The two most common types of skin cancer, basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas, also called non-melanoma skin cancers, can be caused by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. Though they are often curable, the process of surgical removal can be painful and disfiguring. According to a survey from the American Society for Dermatological Surgery (ASDS), there was a 10 percent increase in the number of surgical procedures related to skin cancer between 2007 and 2009. Melanomas are often malignant and are a more dangerous form of cancer, and 65 to 90 percent of them are caused by UV exposure.

To reduce an individual’s risk of developing skin cancer, experts recommend a number of measures that can be taken, including limiting the amount of time spent outdoors, particularly between 10AM and 4PM when UV exposure is highest in the continental United States. In addition, though it does not completely eliminate an individual’s risk of developing skin cancer, the use of sunscreen can help to decrease the risk. According to a U.S. sunscreen study conducted by Neutrogena, only 18 percent of American adults use sunscreen regularly, and only 48 percent of those reapply sunscreen when needed. Though the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) suggests that consumers apply enough sunscreen to fill a shot glass, according to Jeffery Dover, president of the ASDS, consumers often do not apply enough for the products to be effective. The AAD reports that individuals frequently do not use enough sunscreen to adequately protect them from UV rays, and suggests the use of products with a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15 year round and 30 in the summer. SPF refers to the ability of a product to block UV radiation from reaching the skin, however the amount of protection does not increase proportionally with the SPF number and layering multiple SPFs does not result in protection equal to their sum. In order to ensure that sunscreens are most effective, they should be applied at least 20 minutes prior to sun exposure and only products stating that they provide UVA/UVB or “broad spectrum coverage” should be used.

In order to increase the use of sunscreen, public health officials have begun seeking new ways of increasing sun safety awareness. In one study, researchers found that using text messages to remind individuals to apply sunscreen when going outside, and reapply it following swimming or exercise increased its use. Sun protection has also advanced beyond the standard lotions, creams, and sprays, and now also includes clothing treated to provide UV protection. Most recently, a 10 percent tax was implemented on the use of indoor tanning services, underscoring the fact that even indoor tanning can be hazardous. With these new measures in place and continued improvements in sun protection technologies, researchers hope that it may be possible to prevent some skin cancers from developing.

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On Drug Resistance

As the distribution of medications worldwide advances, individuals gain access to improved treatment options. Among the medications most frequently distributed are antibiotics. Though expanded access to medicines is “clearly desirable,” it can also create “challenges in preserving the efficacy of these drugs.” A recent report from the Center for Global Development (CGD) indicates that antibiotic distribution programs put in place by the World Health Organization, government agencies, and other groups may be contributing to the increased incidence of drug-resistant bacteria. According to Nancy Birdsall, the president of the CGD, “Drug resistance is a serious problem that doesn’t get serious attention.”

Antibiotics and antimicrobial agents are the most effective means of combating infectious disease. However, as a class of drugs, antibiotics are unique in that once an antibiotic is utilized, the bacteria it is intended to fight begin to develop a resistance and the effectiveness of the medication is diminished. According to British researchers who analyzed 24 previous studies, the excessive prescription and use of antibiotics for coughs and flu-like illnesses leads to antibiotic resistance. Studies indicate that the overuse of medications, inconsistent drug quality, and other factors hasten the adaptation of resistance to given antibiotic and antimicrobial agents.

This increased resistance to commonly used antibiotics can result in “superbugs,” such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureas (MRSA), which is the cause of more than 50 percent of staph infections in US hospitals. Additionally, in the developing world, drug-resistant strains of malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and other diseases are the cause of death for millions of children each year. According to Céire Costello Research Associate at the University of Bristol, “there are some concerns that some common infections are becoming increasingly difficult to treat.” This is seen with increasing frequency in many remote and medically underserved areas of the world where medication dispersal programs are especially prevalent. Reports indicate that 60 to 80 percent of dysentery cases among children in Latin America are “resistant to the drugs recommended to treat it.”

By retaining the medications available now and developing new drugs, experts hope to be able to continue combat bacterial infections effectively. Because of the lengthy development and testing process associated with creating new medications for mass consumption, it is critical to ensure that drug resistance is minimized as much as possible. By urging providers to keep track of which antibiotics they prescribe and how frequently, it may by possible to help slow the rate of drug resistance. It is also essential for clinicians and individuals worldwide, particularly in the developing world, to be aware of the importance of not over prescribing or over using antibiotics.

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Using SMS for Healthcare

Over 4.1 billion cell phones are in use globally, and they are quickly becoming a part of the “digital life” for many.Reports indicate that individuals worldwide now use Internet-based and mobile technologies to find health-related information more frequently than ever before. Although cell phones are more common than computers in some areas of sub-Saharan Africa, it is important to note that they are frequently low-cost models with less features as opposed to high-tech smartphones, so mobile web-based information and applications may not be available.



As a means of delivering health-related information in remote areas, many clinics and organizations have begun to utilize short message service (SMS) technology. SMS or “texting” is a mature technology that is supported worldwide on all cellular network operators, through which messages of up to 160 characters can be delivered to a user’s cell phone. In regions where “personal computer technology” may not be available, it is possible to better ensure the delivery of health-related information through the use of basic cell phones and SMS technology. Over the past few years, SMS-based systems have been put in place throughout the developing world to combat diseases like malaria, provide medical and health information, and support rescue and relief efforts following natural disasters.

In regions where malaria is prevalent, SMS systems, such as the “SMS for Life” program currently in use in Africa, have been implemented to deliver information about the availability of treatment and medications. This program allows the inventory of anti-malarial medications at healthcare facilities throughout Africa, particularly in remote areas, to be tracked by clinics and aid organizations to improve distribution rates. Similar programs which allow physicians to monitor their patients at a distance have been put into practice for other diseases, including a program to ensure the provision of quality care to patients with HIV/AIDS in Kenya. This type of patient-monitoring SMS program has also been instituted to allow healthcare workers in Rwanda to monitor pregnant patients remotely, provide basic health and well-being information to patients throughout Africa, and provide clinic location information to patients in India.

SMS systems have also been established following natural disasters, such as the earthquake that struck Haiti on January 12, 2010. A number of relief organizations set up SMS shortcodes, which assisted individuals searching for friends and family members. Shortcodes are set numbers – usually only five digits long - used to quickly and easily gather messages for delivery. Additionally, SMS messaging and shortcodes allowed for a simplified donation process to a number of aid organizations providing assistance in Haiti.

Although mobile applications, smartphones, and other cutting edge technologies have provided enormous advancements in healthcare, high-tech solutions are not always appropriate for worldwide use. In settings where reliable Internet connectivity may not be available and where basic cell phones are the norm, SMS-based systems allow for the distribution of health-related information to a wider audience.

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HIV/AIDS Worldwide

Worldwide, an estimated 33.4 million people are currently living with HIV, and a recent WHO report indicates that 68 percent of these individuals live in sub-Saharan Africa. Though HIV is prevalent in the developing world, infection rates in the United States continue to be a major health concern. Reports indicate that at the end of 2006, an estimated 1.1 million people were living with HIV in the U.S. and these figures have continued to grow. Though education, testing, and treatment efforts have increased worldwide, ensuring that all individuals with HIV are aware of their status and have access to life-saving medications, remains an enormous challenge.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was first recognized in 1981. The virus destroys specific cells that are imperative to the functioning of an individual’s immune system known as CD4+ T cells. An individual’s HIV status can be determined by administering an antibody test, which detects the substances that the body produces in response to HIV infection. If an individual with HIV does not receive treatment, their condition will progress to the point at which they will be diagnosed as having acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). A healthy individual has a CD4 count of more than 500 cells per cubic millimeter (mm3) of blood, but when an individual’s CD4 count is below 200 mm3, they are diagnosed as having AIDS.

Though anyone can contract HIV, there are certain behaviors known to increase the risk, including promiscuous and/or unprotected sexual contact, using intravenous drugs, homosexual intercourse, and sexual intercourse with individuals who have been incarcerated. According to Carla Bruni-Sarkozy, wife of the President of France and Global Fund’s Ambassador for Protecting Women and Children Against AIDS, children born to mothers with HIV are also at an increased risk, and over 400,000 babies are born with HIV each year. New study findings also suggest that the risk of female-to-male transmission of HIV doubles during pregnancy, but the reason for this increase has not yet been identified. Individuals with HIV can suppress the virus and stop its progression through the use of antiretroviral therapy (ART), which consists of the use of at least three antiretroviral (ARV) medications. Reports indicate that the United States now supports more than 2.5 million individuals receiving ART, the WHO estimates that at least 9.7 million people, primarily in low- and middle-income nations, are in need of these lifesaving medications.

In the hopes of identifying more effective treatment options, research is ongoing to explore how HIV infection progresses in the body. Though it is no longer used following the eradication of smallpox, experts have found that the smallpox vaccine may interfere with how HIV replicates. Additionally, tests have been conducted using experimental vaginal gels containing antiretroviral elements, and they have been seen to reduce transmission of a virus closely related to HIV in monkeys. Researchers have also identified a bacterium found in the human throat which secretes a toxin that has been found to enable antibodies to destroy viral particles in the blood.

Though promising, it remains to be seen if this research will yield any substantial advancement towards finding a cure for HIV. Until a cure is found, expanding existing treatment options and ensuring the provision of testing and education programs are essential to shunting the spread of the virus.

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Innovative Appropriate Technologies

Some high-tech healthcare devices can be created inexpensively and may be beneficial worldwide. Devices which utilize local resources, often referred to as Appropriate Technologies, are especially valuable as they often make use of the skills of local craftsmen and rely on readily available materials. According to Danielle Zurovcik, student researcher at MIT, these devices have the potential to greatly improve care in clinics that “don’t have power, don’t have a lot of supplies.”

Using automobile parts, including headlights, an HVAC, and tires, which are common in even remote regions of the world, researchers have created an incubator in the hopes of decreasing infant mortality rates. By using car parts, researchers were able to create a device that could be fabricated and repaired by auto mechanics and others with limited or no training building or repairing medical equipment. In addition, the prototype incubator uses electricity, but also has a motorcycle battery to provide power if it is not available.

Low-cost diagnostic and treatment devices have also been developed to allow for access to these services in areas where they might otherwise be limited. Undergraduate students at Rice University have developed a centrifuge that can be constructed using a salad spinner and other common plastic items. Like conventional centrifuges, it is able to separate blood samples in only 10 minutes. These samples can then be used to test for anemia, as well as tuberculosis, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. Another simple device was created by students at MIT to help speed the healing process of wounds. The small molded plastic pump can be used to apply suction to a wound, helping to keep the draw away bacteria and wound clean, as well as allowing it to heal more quickly.

Medical devices and aids for individuals with disabilities have also been conceived for use in areas with limited resources. In many areas, low vision is a tremendous problem, affecting literacy and employment rates. In spite of the great need, eyeglasses and the personnel needed to properly fit them, are frequently not available. To address this need, Oxford University professor Josh Silver devised a solution: eyeglasses with fluid filled sacs inside the lenses, whereby the amount of fluid can be adjusted by the user to change the power of the lens. Simple, low-cost devices have also been created to allow individuals with disabilities to communicate with care givers. The Communication Board was developed by the Center for International Rehabilitation’s (CIR) Yeongchi Wu, MD in the early 1980s using only a sheet of paper and pen. The simple and low-cost device can also be used in nursing homes or intensive care units.

Innovative Appropriate Technologies which utilize local resources can help improve the quality and availability of healthcare worldwide. There is often a stigma attached to lower-cost and lower-tech devices, as more expensive can be perceived as better, however their use in the developed and developing world may prove beneficial in reducing overall healthcare costs.

Vote for the Communication Board on Instructables – May 23-30, 2010

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