On the Uses of Stem Cells

Though their use remains controversial, new research and innovative procedures indicate that stem cells may be applicable in more situations than previously thought. Stem cells are immature cells with the ability to grow into any type of tissue. Scientists have worked for years to perfect methods of extracting and directing these cells to grow into different tissue types to heal injuries and cure diseases. In addition to human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), methods of using patient specific cells in regenerative medicine are being refined. Like embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) have the potential to become any type of cell in the body. Because iPS cells are made by “rewinding” adult cells to their pluripotent state - a state from which they can grow into other types of tissue - they can be created from a patient’s own tissues, thus lessening or eliminating the risk of rejection. According to the Los Angeles Times, iPS cells could be used to grow insulin-producing beta cells for patients with diabetes or nerve cells for patients with spinal cord injuries.

Using this type of “adult stem cells,” researchers at the Wayne State University School of Medicine have developed a procedure to increase mobility and quality of life for patients with spinal cord injuries. The process involves the use of progenitor cells from a patient’s own nasal tissue, thus lessening the chances of rejection, tumor formation, and disease transmission sometimes experienced when using donated tissue. Twenty patients with severe chronic spinal cord injuries took part in the Wayne State University study, led by Associate Professor Jean Peduzzi-Nelson. Each received a treatment of partial scar removal in combination with transplantation of nasal tissue and physical rehabilitation. Results from participants, including one paraplegic individual who is now able to ambulate with two crutches and knee braces, indicate that the transplantation of nasal tissue (an “olfactory mucosal autograft”) is an effective and safe treatment for individuals with chronic spinal cord injuries.

Other types of adult cells have also been used for transplantation to damaged tissues. At the Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, fat stem cells from a 14-year-old boy were used to form cheekbones that the young patient lacked. This new technique has the potential to benefit approximately seven million people in the United States, including individuals with various forms of cancer, and those injured in conflict situations. A section of bone from a donated cadaver was shaped to resemble zygomatic bones and act as a support structure for the growth of new tissue. Mesenchymal stem cells from the patient’s fat and a growth-encouraging protein were injected into holes in this bone base. Before implantation, the research team wrapped the grafts in periosteum tissue, which helps encourage stem cells to produce bone tissue. Stem cells were harvested from fat tissue as they exist in similar proportions as in bone marrow tissue, but do not require invasive procedures to gather them.

Using embryonic stem cells from mice, researchers have been able to successfully create a “heart patch” to repair damage caused by heart disease. Bioengineers at Duke University created a 3D mold and used it to grow heart muscle cells or cardiomyocytes. In addition to the mold used to ensure that the cells would not grow as a disorganized mass, cardiac fibroblasts, which comprise up to 60 percent of the heart, were added. These cells helped to guide the growth of the patches and properly align the cells so that they would have properties similar to heart tissue. The heart patches created displayed critical features of heart muscle – the ability to contract and to conduct electrical impulses.

Studies indicate that transplants using pigment-containing visual cells derived from hESCs have also had some success. In individuals who underwent these procedures, structure and function of the light-sensitive lining and the eye (retina) were preserved. For millions who lose their sight or experience low-vision, this type of cell-replacement procedure could prove beneficial. Jennifer Elisseeff, associate professor in biomedical engineering at Johns Hopkins University, and her team have also utilized stem cells to repair damaged and deteriorating knee cartilage. In addition, Elisseeff’s team is working to enable stem cells to reconstruct muscle and fat lost during surgery or trauma and developing an eye patch constructed of special biomaterial derived from collagen to help repair damage to a patient’s cornea.

The use of hESCs remains controversial, though the Obama administration has lifted Bush-era restrictions on federal funding for research based on their use. iPS cells offer an alternative that may prove as beneficial or more so as there is no risk of rejection of the transplanted tissue. For patients with spinal cord injuries, deteriorating vision, compromised heart function, and many other health concerns, treatments using stem cells may offer an opportunity to heal that would otherwise not be available.

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The Flu Vaccine

As new cases and concerns about seasonal flu and swine flu (H1N1) continue to spread worldwide, two vaccines have recently been made available. Both the nasal spray vaccine and injectable vaccine for seasonal flu have proven effective for specific portions of the population, however distribution is still slow. For the H1N1 (swine flu) virus, The Baltimore Sun reports, availability is still an issue and many areas have not yet received enough doses to meet the demand. While many in the developed world do not yet have access to the H1N1 vaccine, Dr. Bernadine Healy notes that the problem is even greater in the developing world. To help these nations fight the pandemic, the United States has agreed to donate 10 percent of its vaccination supply to the World Health Organization (WHO) – eight other nations will make similar donations.

Inoculating individuals for both viruses is complicated by the time frame in which the vaccinations can occur. If one chooses nasal spray for both seasonal and swine flu, they must wait four weeks between doses, while if one is injected for one virus and uses nasal spray for the other, they can be administered together. Discovery Health reports that doctors recommend annual flu shots to lessen the chances of becoming ill. Individuals as young as six months can be inoculated, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and side effects are reported to be minor. Because the virus used to make the seasonal flu vaccine is dead, it is not possible to contract flu from a flu shot, however one may expect a low-grade fever 8 to 24 hours following injection, a swollen or tender area around the injection site, a slight headache or chills within 24 hours.

The seasonal flu shot is an inactivated vaccine, and contains three influenza viruses – one A(H3N2) virus, one regular seasonal A(H1N1) virus (which differs from the 2009 H1N1 virus), and one B virus. The viruses used change annually based on international surveillance which track infection trends and scientists estimations about which strains will circulate during the year. In contrast to the flu shot, the nasal-spray flu vaccine contains a weakened but still living flu virus, sometimes called LAIV (live attenuated influenza vaccine). These nasal mists are approved for use in healthy individuals ages two to 49 who are not pregnant. In addition to nasal sprays, Discovery Health reports that researchers at Stanford University and the University of Alabama at Birmingham have been working with naked DNA in an effort to develop a vaccine that could be delivered via shampoo or dermal patch.

Three recent large-scale studies, including a study led by Dr. Arnold S. Monto of the University of Michigan, indicate that while the seasonal flu shot is more effective for adults and safe for women who are pregnant, the intranasal vaccine (nasal spray) is more effective at preventing flu in children. These studies showed 35 to 53 percent fewer cases of flu in children who were given the nasal spray vaccine than those who received injected vaccines. The Los Angeles Times reports that injectable vaccines prevent roughly 50 percent more seasonal flu in healthy adults than the nasal spray vaccines.

Due to the relative newness of the H1N1 vaccine, health authorities have implemented a number of tracking measures to ensure its safety. The Associated Press reports that Harvard Medical School scientists are working to link insurance databases covering 50 million people with vaccination registries to allow them to determine if people visit a doctor after being vaccination as well as the reason for the visit. Johns Hopkins University and the CDC are also working to ensure that any side effects are noted and addressed quickly. These efforts include emailing individuals who have been vaccinated recently to see how they are feeling (Johns Hopkins), and preparing take-home cards asking vaccine recipients to report any side effects to the nation’s Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting system (CDC). These measures are being undertaken as in the Internet-age, the Associated Press notes, one person updating their Facebook status to say that they got a flu shot and feel sick could cause a wave of similar reports.

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Associated Press on the Nasal Spray Flu Vaccine - The New York Times on CDC Side Effect Tracking Measures

The Price of Soda

Obesity-related illnesses account for nearly 10 percent of all medical spending in the United States - an estimated $147 billion each year. Recent reports and study findings indicate that excess consumption of soda and other sugary beverages may be contributing to America’s increasing weight. New York City Health Commissioner, Thomas A. Farley told the Epoch Times that “Drinking beverages loaded with sugars increases the risk of obesity and associated problems, particularly diabetes but also heart disease, stroke, arthritis and cancer.” Initiatives have been launched to help cap consumption, including a public awareness advertising campaign in New York City and proposed taxation on sugary beverages, but their success has yet to be documented.

CNN reports that sugary soft drinks contribute about 10 percent of the calories in the American diet. An “Extra Large” 32-ounce Coke contains 400 calories, nearly a quarter of the caloric total required by an average adult woman each day. Researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill analyzed the national beverage consumption patterns of over 73,000 individuals over two years of age and found that between 1977 and 2001, overall calories from sweetened beverages had increased 135 percent. Findings from the UCLA Center for Health Policy Research and the California Center for Public Health Advocacy indicated that 62 percent of children ages 12 to 17 and 41 percent between 2 and 11 consume at least one sugar-sweetened beverage daily. The same UCLA study also found that adults who consumed one or more sweetened beverage each day were 27 percent more lightly to be overweight or obese.

Wayne Campbell, professor in the Department of Foods and Nutrition at Purdue University, explained that the human body does not react in the same way to solid and liquid calories, making these “sugar bombs” particularly problematic. A mix of hormones control appetite, ghrelin being the one that signals that it is time to eat again. When a large meal is consumed, ghrelin levels drop for several hours, however this does not occur when a large quantity of a sugary beverage is taken in. According to Harvard endocrinologist Dr. David Ludwig, the sugars in soda are rapidly absorbed, “which raises blood sugar and in effect causes the body to go into panic.” Insulin is released to break down the sugar, “but the body overcompensates, and blood sugar drops below the fasting level.” In response to low blood sugar levels, ghrelin and other hormones are secreted, triggering hunger and causing an individual to consume more.

According to Dr. Harold Goldstein, over the last 30 years, Americans consume at least 278 more calories daily, though physical activity levels have remained the same. Dr. Goldstein explained that during that period, soda and other sugary beverages accounted for as much as 43 percent of the new caloric intake. An American Heart Association survey indicated soft drinks comprised the top source of “discretionary sugar calories.” According to their findings, women should consume no more than 100 calories of added processed sugar per day (6 teaspoons), and men should limit their intake to 150 calories (nine teaspoons). Just one 12-ounce soda can contain as much as 13 teaspoons of sugar, often in the form of high fructose corn syrup, compounds of which researchers at Rutgers University say may start a chemical chain reaction leading to diabetes.

In an effort to raise awareness about the potential health concerns of drinking too much soda, the Fund for Public Health in New York has provided funding for an advertising campaign. The ads, which will run on 1,500 subway cars for three months, feature images of soda and other drinks becoming human fat as they are poured from bottles. “Are you pouring on the pounds?” the ads inquire, urging consumers to consider water or milk as alternatives to soda in order to not “drink [themselves] fat.” In the same vein, public health officials and U.S. health experts are calling for increased taxes on sweetened soft drinks. A study appearing in the New England Journal of Medicine cited research on the price elasticity of soda, indicating that for every 10 percent rise in price consumption declines 8 to 10 percent. Thirty-three states currently have sales taxes on soft drinks, but these existing taxes are viewed as too minor to affect consumption levels, and unlike the proposed tax initiatives, are not earmarked for health-related programs.

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Reuters on Soda and Obesity And Soft Drink Taxes - CBS on Soda’s Impact on America - NBC New York on Soda and Obesity - New York Times on New York’s Anti-Soda Ads And Proposed Taxes

Physicians Using Twitter

A recent report from Forrester Research indicates that the use of social networking websites among people aged 35 to 54 increased by 60 percent in the last year. Twitter and Facebook have become popular among federal centers like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (@CDCemergency), hospitals like the University of Maryland Medical System (University of Maryland Medical Center - @UMMC), and even individual doctors.

Through Twitter, doctors are able to post updates about the events of their day, connect with other healthcare workers, communicate with and inform patients, and even document surgeries and procedures. Results of a recent study by the American Telemedicine Association indicate that doctors and patients have seen beneficial outcomes from using Twitter to connect. Some healthcare providers, like pediatric gastroenterologist Bryan Vartabedian, MD (@Doctor_V), chose to use Twitter as a means to extend their web presence and communicate with existing and potential patients. Clinical nurse Phil Baumann notes additional medical uses for Twitter, including:

1. Disaster alerting and response,

2. Diabetes management including blood glucose tracking,

3. Drug safety alerts from the FDA,

4. Biomedical device data capture and reporting,

5. Shift-bidding for healthcare professionals,

6. Diagnostic brainstorming,

7. Rare disease tracking and resource connection,

8. Smoking cessation assistance,

9. Broadcasting infant care tips for new patients, and

10. Post-discharge patient follow-up and consultation.

Dr. Joseph Kvedar (@jkvedar), the Director of the Center for Connected Health and iCons in Medicine Member, describes Twitter as “a method of mass communication” that is real-time and “designed for mobility.” The ability to constantly update information also makes Twitter particularly appealing to government health organizations such as the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (@CDCemergency) and the UK’s NHS (@NHSChoices). Using Twitter, these agencies are able to provide up-to-the-minute information regarding disease outbreaks, contact numbers to call for assistance, and other pertinent information. Medical associations such as the Radiological Society of North America (@RSNA), Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society (@HIMSS), and the Biotechnology Industry Organization (@BIOConvention) also use Twitter to keep their members informed about current news, promote events and meetings, and provide a sense of community.

While some providers use Twitter to connect with their patients and peers, others use it to provide information and updates during medical procedures. Recently surgeons in Iowa used Twitter to allow a woman’s family to follow the progress of her surgery in real-time. The Children’s Medical Center in Dallas provided updates when a father’s kidney was transplanted into his son, and the Henry Ford Medical Center (Henry Ford Health System - @henryfordnews) has tweeted during several procedures since January. These updates provide individuals who might not be comfortable watching a surgical procedure to still gain an understanding of the process and a chance to ask questions.

For the 61 percent of Americans who search online for medical advice, Twitter may not provide enough information. The social networking website Facebook allows healthcare workers or medical associations to connect with colleagues and patients. For the reported 55 percent of patients who want to be able to communicate with their doctors via email (according to a Manhattan Research study) it can offer another means of communication. Dr. William Cooper, a cardiothoracic surgeon, says that Facebook presents a way to always be available to his patients. According to Pauline Chen, MD (@paulinechen), it is unclear if engagement via Facebook and Twitter helps or hinders a patient-doctor relationship.

This concern is echoed by other physicians, including Dr. Sachin Jain, a resident physician at Bringham and Woman’s Hospital, who has accepted Facebook friend requests from patients, but “wondered about the appropriateness of the interaction.” In addition to the expectation that a physician would be “instantly available 24/7,” some doctors worry about the security of Facebook and other social networking websites, as well as potential HIPAA violations and litigation concerns. For many physicians, Facebook, Twitter, and other forms of social media are seen as “blurring the line between work and private life” - something that may cause some hesitation and discomfort.

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The New York Times on Twitter Users - USA Today/Science Fair on the Medical Uses of Twitter - Associated Press on Tweeting During Operations - On Medical Associations Using Twitter - Dr. Pauline Chen on Twitter - CNN on Physicians on Facebook - More on Physicians and Medical Professionals Using Twitter

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The Medicinal Life of Bees

Forms of apitherapy or bee venom therapy (BVT) have been in use for centuries in a number of cultures worldwide. As early as 800 BCE Charlemagne is said to have been treated with bee stings, and in 1888 Australian physician advocated the use of bee venom for rheumatism. Apitherapy is defined as the medicinal use of products derived from bees, including honey and royal jelly, as well as bee venom. While BVT has not been proven through clinical trials and testing, practitioners claim that bee stings contain an anti-inflammatory agent that relieves chronic pain and can be used to treat a number of diseases. BVT, which can involve either the application of live bees or the injection of bee venom, has been used to treat arthritis, multiple sclerosis, migraine headaches, psoriasis, and herpes. Raw honey and other ingested bee products are believed by some to contain B-complex vitamins, antifungal, and antibacterial properties.

The use of BVT has gained some attention as a potential homeopathic remedy for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) symptoms. Discovery Health reports that apitherapy can be used to lessen the pain, loss of coordination, and muscle weakness associated with MS. It is commonly held that compounds in bee venom, including melittin and adolapin, help to reduce inflammation and pain. Because of the lack of major studies to date regarding the effectiveness of BVT, only about 50 physicians in the United States use it as a treatment for MS and other diseases. Anecdotal evidence from patients with MS being treated with apitherapy is reassuring, however, and has prompted thousands of beekeepers, acupuncturists, and other alternative medicine providers to offer the treatment. Those who chose to use apitherapy methods based on the application of live bees may chose to raise their own colonies or rely on mail-order services.

Researchers at Georgetown University (Washington, D.C.) conducted a preliminary study to evaluate the safety of bee venom extract as a treatment for patients with progressive forms of MS. Although no serious adverse reactions were observed during the year-long study, four of the nine participants experienced a worsening of neurological symptoms, requiring termination of the study. It is important to note that this worsening could not be ascribed to side effects of the study, and three participants self-reported an improvement in their symptoms, and two demonstrated objective improvement. Larger scale studies would be needed in order to conclusively prove the effectiveness of BVT for patients with multiple sclerosis.

Delivery of melittin, the main component in bee venom, is also being studied by researchers at Washington University in St. Louis. By utilizing nanoparticles tipped with bee venom – so called “nanobees” – the researchers are seeking a cancer treatment with fewer side effects than conventional treatments. Nanobees work by delivering melittin, which destroys the cells around it by puncturing the cell membranes, directly to the cancer cells. However, unlike the melittin from bee stings, melittin attached to nanoparticles attacks only cells that have one particular protein on their surface, the protein that helps cancer cells to grow new blood vessels which is found only on tumor cells. After less than a week of treatment using nanobees, the growth of human breast cancer cells in mice had slowed by about 25 percent, and melanoma tumors in mice shrunk by 88 percent.

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On Apitherapy from cancer.org - Additional information on Apitherapy - Discovery Health on BVT for MS - Georgetown University Research on BVT - Discovery on Nanobees - CNN on Nanobees - Additional information on Ferris Apiaries, a Maryland-based bee supplier - Additional information on Pat Wagner, “the bee lady”

A Killer in the Developing World

HIV/AIDS and malaria are major health concerns worldwide, however the World Health Organization (WHO) reports across much of Asia and Africa secretory diarrhea - which accounts for 1.6 million deaths annually - is an even greater threat. Each day in India, diarrhea-related diseases kill 1,250 people, only slightly fewer than the H1N1 virus has killed globally to date (1,500), according to the WHO. Caused by E.coli, cholera, and other bacteria, viruses, or parasites, diarrhea affects individuals more often in areas that lack safe water and appropriate sanitation. In individuals with secretory diarrhea, infectious agents cause too much water to enter the bowel and be evacuated from the body, leading to excessive dehydration and eventually death if appropriate treatment is not received.

In nations of the developing world, including Bangladesh, India, Mali, and Pakistan, aid organizations and government agencies have begun distributing zinc supplements to villagers as a treatment for diarrhea. Data from recent studies documented in the August 2009 issue of the Journal of Leukocyte Biology suggest that zinc may help to activate the T-cells needed to destroy viruses and bacteria, including those that cause diarrhea. Time Magazine reports that in tablet or liquid form, zinc can be used in combination with oral-rehydration therapy (ORT). While it is not entirely clear how zinc helps halt diarrhea, Oliver Fontaine, a diarrhea specialist for the WHO, explains that a single course of zinc treatment can stave off diarrhea for three months.

Unlike zinc, which often produces an immediate improvement in an individual’s health, the glucose present in ORT (a solution of sugars and salts) slows the evacuation of fluids allowing for the absorption of electrolytes in the intestines, and halting the progression of dehydration to a chronic state. Because of the delay in the improvement of symptoms with ORT, “Mothers don’t see ORT as real treatment,” according to Eric Swedberg, senior director of health and nutrition at Save the Children U.S. Though ORT is an effective treatment for diarrhea, only about 35 percent of families in diarrhea-stricken countries utilize the method.

By offering zinc in combination with ORT, government-run programs in Ethiopia and Tanzania hope to increase the number of people surviving diarrheal outbreaks. Additionally, efforts are being made in Mali to add zinc to the country’s list of essential drugs, a step towards improving the distribution of the tablets. To halt the recent outbreaks of diarrhea in Nepal that have led to 235 deaths to date, the Office of the Prime Minister has begun coordinating efforts to construct a toilet in each household, provide sources of potable water, and improve waste disposal systems. In addition, the Nepali government has mobilized 298 personnel to aid in providing treatment in the area through 89 health camps.

To support these and other similar efforts, funding for the provision of the potentially life-saving drugs, and awareness of their effectiveness must be increased. In 2007, only four percent of all U.S. funding for research of epidemics in the developing world was devoted to finding solutions to decreasing the number of diarrhea-related deaths. Support from organizations like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have provided some support, but additional funding is still needed not only to ensure that zinc tablets are more widely distributed, but also to assist in efforts to improve the quality of available water and waste treatment measures.

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WHO on Water Treatment and Safe Storage - On Diarrhea and Tuberculosis in India - Time Magazine on Zinc to Treat Diarrhea - Diarrheal Deaths in Nepal - On Zinc Fighting Infection

Innovative, Low-Cost Medical and Diagnostic Tests

In the developing world, the availability of many medical technologies is limited by cost, durability, and ease-of-use. This is especially true of expensive diagnostic devices, which are critical for detecting diseases that are endemic in developing countries. However, researchers are working to develop low-cost, user-friendly alternatives that could improve the ability of healthcare providers to diagnose a range of conditions.

Harvard researchers have developed an alternative microfluidic device that replaces standard silicon, glass, or plastic substrates with treated paper. Fluids flow through the microchannels in the paper device in the same way that they would in a standard chip. Researchers have used the device to test for glucose and protein in urine, but hope to adapt it for the possibility of testing blood samples for HIV/AIDS, dengue fever, or hepatitis. While a traditional microfluidic device costs between $10 and $1,000USD, the materials to create the paper devices, known as microPADS, cost only three cents. The design of the microPAD device allows for several tests to be conducted simultaneously, furthering the cost and resource savings.

To help better diagnose infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis, researchers have developed a microscope that attaches to any cellular telephone with a camera feature. The device, known as a CellScope, is able to illuminate pathogens in a sample treated with fluorescent molecular “tags.” It is estimated that the production of first CellScopes will cost roughly $1,000 each, but with further developments the price could drop to just a few hundred dollars, including the cell phone. Not only can an individual use the microscope to view the pathogens, but they can also send an image to a healthcare facility for assistance making an appropriate diagnostic determination.

Efforts have also been made by scientists at the Burnet Institute to improve HIV-testing procedures. A prototype monitoring test has been designed for use in remote settings. The new test, which uses a finger-prick blood sample, allows individuals to determine their CD4+ T-cell count within 30 minutes. The CD4+ T-cells are critical for healthy immune system function and their levels are a deciding factor with regard to starting anti-retroviral therapy. Standard CD4 tests are often not available in the developing world due to their cost, the need for specialized equipment and trained personnel, and the long wait period to obtain test results.

Though these diagnostic technologies offer improvements in the developing world, as The Wall Street Journal reports, acceptance may be slower in the United States. Some researchers have found success when applying African healthcare models to rural areas of the U.S., and results using low-cost technologies originally conceived for use in the developing world may follow this trend. The use of innovative low-cost testing methods may also assist with telemedicine initiatives, as they allow healthcare providers to conduct necessary tests and provide better diagnostic information to consultants. Through discussion among global health experts – as allowed by telemedicine initiatives like iCons in Medicine - innovative diagnostic tools and other cost-saving measures may become more popular, and help to provide improved care worldwide.

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IEEE spectrum – Inside Technology - Discover Magazine on the microPAD and on the CellScope - Burnet Institute CD4+ T-cell Test